Bach's Two Part Inventions

I am familiar with many of J.S. Bach's Two Part Inventions, as well as his Three Part Inventions (known as Sinfonias) and his Preludes and Fugues for keyboard. Although I am well acquainted with the themes of a lot of these pieces, I wanted to have a brief look at what Bach does with the initial idea presented. For this I used my copy of his Two Part Inventions; although the Sinfonias would have more closely resembled the three part texture I will be composing for the assignment, looking at just two parts will enable me to more clearly see the relationship between the two voices, the concepts of which I can then apply to three voices. I noticed the following basic and recurring elements in Bach's Two Part Inventions:

• States theme, imitates at same pitch in other voice
• Restates theme in the dominant, imitates at the same pitch in different voice
• Limited number of different rhythms
• Sections where both voices are busy (semiquavers), but usually one less busy than the other
• Voices often in apart by 3rds and 6th's
• Use of all types of motion - contrary, similar, oblique
• Both voices state melodic ideas
• Use of long / multiple rests in one voice, especially at the beginning when the theme is being stated
• Contrasting articulation
• Constant movement from beginning to end

Without getting bogged down with in-depth analysis of Bach's work, I think I can use some or all of the elements above in my composition for assignment three, which will help to create unity, interest, and clean, independent melodic lines. 

Research: Canon, Rounds, Catches

I knew what canon was prior to this exercise, although I had no idea of the theory behind how it works. Rounds and catches weren't familiar terms to me before, but once I had started reading the course materials in Part Three, it was clear there was an association with canon. I decided to do some research to find out the similarities and differences between the three terms.

Rounds

A simple form of canon.
The melody is comprised of a single chord, or chord progression.
Each voice begins at different times, so that different parts of the melody harmoniously combine.
Melodic decoration can be used.
Popular examples include Row, Row, Row Your Boat and Frère Jacques.

Catches

A type of round where the phrase in a single line of lyrics is not apparent until the lyrics are split between the different voices.
Tended to be humorous or bawdy, with a punning, non-musical point.
Rounds had a folk or traditional origin, of musical interest only.
Mostly for three voices.
The double entendre was the favored device in the bawdy catch.

Canon

Many types of canon, including:

Rounds - where the voices imitates exactly, at the octave or unison

Accompanied canon - has one or more independent parts that does not imitate

Strict canon - follows the exact interval quality of the leader

Free canon - follows the interval number, but not the quality (major/minor)

Inversion canon - the follower follows in contrary motion (e.g. up by the same interval instead of down)

Retrograde canon - follows the leader backwards

Sources:

http://www.hoasm.org/VIIA/CatchesGlees.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canon_(music)

The Bassoon

From my blog at music1listeningblog.blogspot.co.uk:

History

The general consensus among music historians is that the modern bassoon derives from the 'dulcian' from the renaissance period, as they both share some distinct characteristics, such as the unique shape of the bore, and the metal crook to which the double reed is attached. 

Note Production

The bassoon uses a double reed like the oboe, however the shape of the instrument and its bocal (metal crook) alters the sound to produce its own unique flavour, rather than just a continuation of the oboe's bass register. As with all woodwinds, different notes are produced with the use of the keys. Due to its size, the instrument employs long levers and holes placed at an angle in the thick wood to make fingering possible. Like the other woodwinds, further pitch control can be obtained by changing embouchure, alternate fingerings, and the pushing in or pulling out of the bocal.

Due to the weight of the instrument, it is supported by either a strap when the player is standing, or a seat belt when the player is seated.

The oboe is the woodwind's answer to the cello, and trombone. It's dark, woody timbre is often said to be reminiscent of the male baritone voice.

Construction

The bassoon consists of six distinct parts - the reed, the bocal, the wing joint, the boot, the long joint, and the bell. The body is usually made of maple, while the metal parts are brass or nickel. Student models can also be made of plastic.

Playing Techniques

Despite it's large size, the bassoon is extremely agile. Large leaps, and rapid passages are possible, in all but the lowest end of the register.

The bassoon shares many playing techniques with the other woodwinds, such as:

- Single Tonguing
- Vibrato
- Flutter Tonguing
- Trills
- Tremolo
- Glissando
- Key Slap
- Slap Tongue
- Circular breathing to prolong sound for long periods of time

From Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. :

• Performs lyrical passages beautifully.
• Produces attacks and staccato passages as incisively as the oboe.
• Notated in bass clef, but uses the tenor clef when ledger lines begin to accumulate (usually from the G a fifth above middle C).
• Superb in all registers as a solo instrument. But accompanied can get swallowed up by the sound of the other instruments, particularly in the high register.
• Doubling the cellos and basses in its lowest register has been a favourite compositional technique.
• Versatile and agile, a favourite solo instrument for orchestral composers since the baroque period.
• Can be humorously scored for.
• It is extremely difficult to play the notes in the lowest perfect 5th pianissimo; the upper perfect 5th also doesn't project as well as the lower registers.
• Upward slurs can be played rapidly.
• Large leaps, even between the extreme registers are quite easily performed.
• Some downward skips are very difficult due to the mechanics of the instrument.
• Trills are effective on the bassoon, but there are several which are should be avoided due to awkward fingering.
• Tremolos are not idiomatic to the instrument, and should never exceed a perfect 4th.

The Saxophone

For this, like the other instruments, I delved into the excellent book The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. by Samuel Adler:

• Used primarily as part of the woodwind family rather than brass.
• Its tone is closer to the clarinet than to any other; it is played with a mouthpiece and single reed like the clarinet, and clarinetists often double the saxophone as the fingerings and playing techniques are very similar.
• There are a great variety of saxophones, including soprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass versions.
• Not a fully permanent member of the symphony orchestra, but many 19th and 20th century composers have utilised the saxophone, especially in solo passages.
• The sound is distinctive, and can often overpower the other instruments in the orchestra.
• Playing very softly at both ends of the range is difficult, but especially at the very bottom.
• Composers have distinguished between the sweet, sentimental, vibrato sound of the jazz sound, and the less vibrato, dynamically controlled symphonic sound.
• Often used by composers of the earlier 20th century to suggest jazz or popular music.

The Clarinet

From my blog at music1listeningblog.blogspot.co.uk:

History

Single reed instruments have existed since medieval times, but the modern clarinet is derived from a baroque-era instrument called the chalumeau. The chalumeau was similar to the recorder, but had a single reed like the clarinet. The range of notes was limited however, and around 1700 one of the keys was modified to become a 'register key' (a key that raises the register of the notes so that higher octaves can be played) and thus the first clarinet was born. As the clarinet gradually improved, it was incorporated into the orchestra, and composers (Mozart especially) wrote many works for the instrument.

Note Production

The clarinet is a single reed instrument. Unlike the oboe and bassoon where two reeds vibrate together, a single reed produces sound by the reed and mouthpiece vibrating together. Just like the other members of the woodwind family, the length of the resonating chamber, and in turn the pitch of the notes, is altered with the use of keys along the body of the instrument. Embouchure again plays an important role in note production.

The key system on the clarinet is directly inspired by, but is not the same as, the Boehm System, invented for use on flutes. This system is now standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world (notably except Germany and Austria, who use the Oehler System).

Construction

The clarinet has several parts, connected together by cork covered joints called tenons. There is the mouthpiece, which is attached to the reed with a metal band called the ligature. Next there is the barrel, which can be (and often is) swapped out for aftermarket models of slightly different shapes and lengths that slightly adjust the tuning of the instrument. The barrel is connected to the upper joint, and this to the lower joint. The upper and lower joints are where the keywork is found. The clarinet, like the oboe and bassoon, ends with the bell.

Playing Techniques

The clarinet is a very agile instrument, but is hampered slightly by the complexity of its keywork, and therefore difficulty of fingering.

The previously mentioned techniques for the other woodwinds are all still relevant here. The clarinet is better suited to particular techniques than the double reed instruments, pitch-bending can be used as an example. Relatively large pitch alterations can be made downwards, but only small intervals upwards. This technique is accomplished with alteration to embouchure.

Some techniques employed by modern composers include placing the teeth on the reed, removing the barrel and upper joint entirely, and playing without the mouthpiece using flute or trumpet embouchure.


From Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. :

• The 'break' between Bb4 and BNatural4 in terms of fingering presents problems for all but the most expert players.
• Good clarinetists can play from pianissimo to fortissimo at any part of the clarinets range.
• For predominantly flat keys, you should score the Bb clarinet. For sharp keys, the A clarinet, although in 20th century scores there are more Bb clarinets represented regardless of key, especially as the tonal elements has been obscured in much of this music.
• The clarinet is equally effective in both lyrical and fast, virtuosic passages in all registers.
• The clarinets staccato is less pointed than the oboe, but more than the flute.
• Has two effects better performed than any other woodwind are the niente attack (sounding from almost silence to a piano dynamic then fades to nothing on the same note), and the playing of subtones, a ppp dynamic sounding especially quiet and ethereal in the lowest register of the clarinet.
• All trills and tremolos can be negotiated on the clarinet, larger-interval tremolos are difficult above the stave, but certainly possible.
• Glissandi are easily performed, except over the break. It is also easier to glissando above the break than below. Glissandi can only be played upwards.
• Microtones can be performed by bending the note downwards by changing the embouchure.

The Oboe

From my blog at music1listeningblog.blogspot.co.uk:

History

The predecessor to the modern oboe was a medieval and renaissance instrument called the shawm. The shawm was turned from a single piece of wood, in contrast to the oboe which is in three parts similar to the flute, for ease of manufacture. The shawm also had a pirouette, a wooden ledge beneath the reed which allowed the player to rest their lips. This was discontinued on the hautbois - the early name for the oboe. The oboe replaced the shawm in the mid-17th century. Other instruments in the oboe family include the oboe d'amour, cor anglais, heckelphone and baritone oboe.

Note Production

The oboe is a double reed instrument. The oboist holds the reeds in their mouth and blows air through at high velocity. This causes the reeds to rapidly vibrate, sending bursts of energy into the oboe, causing sympathetic vibrations within the bore which produce the sound.

Like the other woodwind instruments, the pitch is altered by changing the length of the resonating chamber with the use of keys to cover or uncover holes down the length of the instrument, as well as changing the players embouchure.

The oboe is described as having a very bright, clear and piercing sound, and the closest to the human voice.

Construction

Student oboes are usually made from plastic resin for economic reasons, but concert oboes are made from wood such as ebony. The three main pieces of the oboe are called the upper joint, lower joint, and bell. These are connected by a cork covered joint called tenons. The reed is connected to the upper joint via the 'staple'.

Playing Techniques

The oboe, although an agile instrument, is not so as much as the flute, therefore it is frequently used as a melodic instrument, often with melancholy.

Many of the techniques discussed in my previous article on the flute also apply here, such as:

- Vibrato
- Flutter Tonguing (although slightly modified to accommodate the reed)
- Trills
- Key Slap

Some techniques are more difficult to perform on an oboe:

- Double and triple tonguing (due to the reed causing a hindrance)
- Tremolo
- Finger glissando's over large intervals

Other techniques can be played on the oboe and not the flute:

- Tooth embouchure (the teeth slightly touching the reed)
- Slap tongue (closing the mouth hole with the tongue after a brief attack)


From Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. :

• Ranges from Bb3 to G6 (Can play A6, but extremely difficult, often avoided even by professionals).
• Most effective range is F4 to C6.
• The notes between C6 and the F above it give a thin, softly piercing effect; very beautiful but difficult to control, especially for the non-professional.
• Pianissimo's should never be written for the lowest 5th of its range; an opposite situation to the flute.
• Staccato passages can be single tongued very easily; double and triple tonguing are hardly if ever called for. Extremely fast and repeated notes are not idiomatic to the instrument.
• The instrument is agile however, and can handle almost any run and fairly large leaps.
• Trills and tremolos are possible on the instrument, with more scope on newer instruments. Trills and tremolos are possible anywhere except between Bb3 and the semitone above. C4 to C#4 are also best avoided. All large interval tremolos above the stave are difficult to perform, as are any wider than a perfect 5th at any point on the instrument.

Several extended techniques are available, including:

• Key clicks.
• Blowing air without producing a pitch.
• Playing through the reed when not attached to the instrument.
• Bending the pitch up or down a quarter tone, by changing the embouchure or pulling the reed out of the mouth slightly.
• Multiphonics are quite successful on the oboe, but can sound harsh, and not all players can execute them successfully. Correct fingering should always be included with the multiphonic, and with the assistance of a performer.

The Recorder

I have no previous research on the recorder, neither can it be found in the Study of Orchestration book due to it not being a regular part of the standard orchestra. Wikipedia and recorderhomepage.net have been very helpful in putting together a picture of this instrument in my mind.


History

The recorder is a woodwind instrument belonging to the fipple flutes family. It was popular from medieval times through to the baroque era, declining in the 18th century in favour of orchestral woodwind instruments such as oboe, flute and clarinet. It was traditionally associated with pastoral scenes and to imitate the sound of birds.


Note Production

The recorder is commonly pitched at concert pitch. (A=440 Hz). Among serious amateur and professional instruments, there can also be found two other standard pitches: baroque instruments A=415 Hz, renaissance instruments A=466hz. It is not a transposing instrument, although highest and lowest members of the recorder family do transpose at the octave. 

The instrument is held out in front of the player as opposed to sideways like the transverse flute. The player's breath is directed down a narrow channel called the 'windway' which is cut out of the block called the 'fipple'. After exiting the windway, the air is directed against a sharp edge called the 'labium' or 'ramp' which causes the column of air inside the body of the instrument to oscillate. The length of the resonator tube is adjusted by placing fingers over the finger holes.   


Construction

The recorder is made from a range of hardwoods or plastic. It has seven tone holes at the front, and one at the back for the thumb.


Playing Techniques

Several 'extended' playing techniques offering special colouristic effects are available to the modern recorder player, including but not limited to:

Non-standard fingerings, i.e. any sound created by finger combinations outside the accepted pattern. 

Flutter tonguing.

Vibrato, achieved with an exaggeration of normal diaphragm vibrato, and that created by the throat, tongue, finger, hand or even knee. 

Special effects created by playing dismantled parts of the instrument.

Percussive noises using the hands or another object.

Humming and playing at the same time.

Use of one of the tone holes to play like a flute.

Playing without a headpiece.

More conventional effects such as glissandi.

The Flute

I thought it would be wise to expand on the limited information given in the course materials for each individual woodwind instrument in order to better acquaint myself with it's technical specifications and possibilities. This information in combination with careful listening to the suggested pieces should give me a good basis of knowledge which I can use as a springboard to write my own pieces for this colourful section of the orchestra.

The initial information is research previously undertaken for the course Music 1: From the Present to the Past, and put into my own words. It is entirely relevant in its original form here, so I have made a direct copy for this blog. After, I have included notes made on additional information found in Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. I have made this in bullet point form to keep it concise, easy to remember and easy to refer back to later.

From my blog: music1listeningblog.blogspot.co.uk :

History

The flute is an ancient instrument, with examples found dating from the stone age. The modern western concert flute dealt with here, part of a family which includes the piccolo, alto flute and bass flute was developed by Theobald Boehm (1794–1881), with only minor alterations since.

Note Production

It is a transverse instrument; in other words it is held sideways. It is the only woodwind instrument that doesn't make use of a reed; instead it is an aerophone - an instruments that produces sound through air vibration, without the use of strings or membranes, and where the vibrating body of the instrument doesn't produce the primary sound. The sound is produced by air flow across an opening (called the embouchure hole). This causes a rapid vibration at this opening, which causes the air inside the flute to vibrate, which produces the sound.

On the outside of the flute along with the embouchure hole, there is another 15 or 16 holes, which can be opened or closed with the use of the keys, on the keyset. The flute is essentially a hollow tube, so by opening or closing the holes, you are changing the length of the tube, and in turn the pitch of the note. The more keys that are pressed down, the longer the resonating chamber (the hollow tube), and the lower the pitch of the note. The positioning of the lips and use of facial muscles are also all crucial to the sound produced.

Construction

The western concert flute is usually made of nickel plated copper or similar for student models, with concert flautist's instruments being silver plated, or thorough sterling silver, or gold.

It consists of three parts: the headjoint, middlejoint, and footjoint. Beginner models will usually have a 'C' footjoint, with more accomplished players opting for a 'B' foot, allowing the lower note to be played, but at more difficulty.

On the outside of the flute is the keywork, the keys of which are used to open and close the various holes along the length of the instrument.

The flute typically comes in two varieties - instruments with open hole keys, that is holes in the centre of five keys, often chosen by concert flutists, which is louder and clearer in the lower register, and those with 'plateau' keys with no holes which is easier for beginner flautists.

Playing Techniques

The flute is played by holding the instrument sideways, with the bottom lip tucked in slightly and resting on the lip plate. The air stream is then directed across the hole, similar to how one can produce a sound by blowing into a glass bottle. It is a very agile instrument, able to perform staccato and legato notes even a high speed. Tremolos and trills can be played with ease, however lower pitches are more difficult due to being executed with little finger. It is also able to perform a variety of other sounds and effects:-

- Vibrato, using the diaphragm, larynx and lips.
- Flutter Tonguing - executing a rolled 'r' with the tongue for a rapid tremolo.
- Pitch Bend - Turning the flute changes the angle of the embouchure.
- Tongue Pizzicato (darts quickly in and out from between lips).
- Key Slap (percussive effect)
- Tongue Slap - Similar to key slap but with the embouchure hole.
- Tongue Click.


From Samuel Adler's The Study of Orchestration 3rd Ed. :

• The only non-reed woodwind instrument.
• The most agile and sensitive.
• Ranges from C1 (middle C) to D4.
• Some flutes, particularly in America, have a b-foot, which allows the B natural below C1 to be played.
• Pitches above A3 are difficult to play and much be approached with caution, preferably approached by an ascending scale.
• Generally the pitches in the lowest and highest fourths are most problematic, especially for nonprofessionals.
• The lower registers are luscious, but should only be accompanied by sparse orchestral texture so that the flute is able to be heard. 
• Flutes take lots of breath, time should be given to breathe after difficult or sustained passages.
• Some trills and tremelos are incredibly difficult, if not impossible to play and should be avoided. Writing trills and tremelos for the middle of the range is safest.
• Can play 'actual' harmonics for a white, pale sound (indicated by a small circle above the note, as in the strings).

Write Like Mozart - Week 1

Over the last three weeks I have been taking part in a free online course available on coursera.org called Write Like Mozart. It is a six-part course with video lectures and supporting documents provided by Dr. Peter Edwards of The National University of Singapore, with each part released on a weekly basis. The benefits to myself of a course titled Write Like Mozart needs no explanation, and I'll briefly write up what I've learnt each week into this blog.

Week 1

Week one of the course was mostly revision for me, as the topics dealt with I have covered previously in grades six and seven music theory. I always appreciate revision however, and enjoyed reinforcing my knowledge of the basic triads of harmony, seventh chords, ways of voice leading, and texture types. At the end of the week was an assignment whereby we were required to harmonise a melody using the given root position chords, and using correct voice leading.

I didn't find this assignment a problem, and was careful to look for voice leading problems such as consecutive fifths and octaves.

Learning points in brief:

• A progression will usually start with chord I, and the end goal is always chord I.
• The circle of fifths is a common and important progression.
• Some chords a third apart can be substituted in the progression; such as ii for IV or vii for V.
• With voice leading, keeping common tones between chords is advantageous.
• Generally, you should move by step or by the smallest possible interval.
• The leading note if found in an outer voice must go to the tonic.
• Utilising contrary motion will avoid many voice leading problems, such as consecutives.

Instruments of Indefinite Pitch

Idiophones

Cymbals
Curved metal plate with a raised cup or bell in the centre. Consists of the edge, the bow and the cup (dome).
The composer usually specifies which part of cymbal is to be played for a particular effect.
Three standard sizes, with more available.

Crash Cymbals
Pair of cymbals held by leather straps attached to the cup.
Three ways to play:
Can be clashed together forte, and held high over the player's head. If the stroke is fast, can be clashed then immediately damped to player's chest. Soft strokes are also very effective.
One cymbal can be swished against the other giving a hissing effect.
Can roll by rubbing the plates together in a fast rotary motion, not altogether satisfactory.

Suspended Cymbals
A cymbal suspended from a strap on a stand, and struck with a wooden stick for excellent articulation. Softer effects achieved by using marimba yarn mallets or wire brushes.
All the above sticks and mallets can achieve rolls on the various sized cymbals.
Can use a triangle beater to strike or scrape, giving a truly metallic sound.
Can be bowed.

Hi-Hat Cymbals
Two cymbals facing each other, and crashed together with a pedal.
Can be clashed and held tightly for a dry, non-sustained sound, or allowed to vibrate with a soft, slightly clattery sound.
Not often used in the orchestra.

Sizzle Cymbal
A variety of sizes available.
Similar to suspended cymbal, also suspended from a strap.
Played with the same beaters as suspended cymbal.
Holes drilled around the circumference house small metal rivets, which cause a sizzling, hissing sound when the cymbal is struck.

Chinese Cymbals
Some popular Chinese composers have used these cymbals.
Have inverted edges and sound like high tam-tams.

Finger Cymbals
A pair of small metal plates, around two inches in diameter.
Can be struck together to produce a high metallic sound, similar to triangle.
Can be struck separately with a metal, wooden or plastic beater producing a definite but unspecified pitch.
Produces pitches that blend easily with any pitches surrounding them.
Used as rhythm instruments in contemporary performances of medieval music.

Triangle
One of the oldest non-pitched percussion instruments in the orchestra.
Three standard sizes available, giving high, medium and low pitch. Other sizes available.
Has a crystalline, pure, high timbre.
Can be used solo, but gives luminescence to to a large orchestral chord.
Played with a small metal beater, can be struck, or rolled by striking two sides of the triangle in one of the corners.
Softer sonorities are more effective than louder ones.
Blends beautifully with strings and winds.
Provides a good contrast to bass instruments.
The l.v. (let vibrate) symbol is frequently used due to the instrument's good sustaining time.
You should specify exactly how long the sound should last.

Anvil
Large steel block struck by a metal hammer.
Simulates a blacksmith's anvil.
Can be substituted by a similar object if the manufactured anvil is not available.

Cowbells
In various sizes, somewhat triangular in shape.
The pitch of low, medium and high does not vary greatly.
Struck with a snare drumstick.
Has a clanging sound.
Pitched cowbells now available.

Tam-Tam and other Gongs
Gongs can be divided in high, medium and low pitched instruments.
Gongs such as the tam-tam have no specific pitch, but some other gongs such as authentic Asian gongs do.
The tam-tam is the largest and therefore lowest sounding of non-pitched gong family.
Unlike most gongs, the tam-tam has its own striking device called a tam-tam beater.
Can be muted by trapping between hand and leg.

Wind Chimes
Comes in three types - bamboo, glass, and metal.
Suspended, as in a mobile.
Generally, they are struck with the hand and jangled until stopped by the hand.
Bamboo and wooden chimes have a brittle, hollow, rustling sound. Can also be stroked with a small wooden stick or grasped together suddenly to emit a dry, sudden and loud sound.
Wooden chimes are pitched much higher than those of bamboo.
Glass chimes have a very  high, delicate and soft jingling sound.
Metal chimes are also soft, but a little more blatant than glass.

Sleigh Bells
Held in one or both hands and shaken.

Bell Tree
A metal beater is used to stroke the bells on the tree in an upward or downward motion, as specified.

Brake Drum
An automobile brake drum.
Various sizes.
Played with drum sticks or brushes, like any other drum.
Metal plates often substitute the brake drums due to their more ringing sound.

Thunder Sheet
Large sheet of metal suspended on a stand.
Can be struck with a beater, or shaken by hand.

Wood Blocks
Rectangular pieces of hard wood.
Come in sets of graduated sizes, from three to five each.
Mounted on a stand or table when several are required.
Produce a range of unspecified pitches from low to high.
Have a dry, penetrating sound.
Drumsticks as well as marimba mallets of various materials can be used.
One woodblock can be held in one hand, and struck with a beater in the other.
Effective at playing single short staccato notes, as well as rolls and fast passages.

Temple Blocks
A graduated series of five clam-shaped wooden blocks mounted on a stand.
Playing technique and beaters the same as for wood blocks.
More resonant, mellow and hollow sound than wood blocks.

Claves
Two cylindrical pieces of hard wood, around an inch in diameter and six inches long.
One of the claves is cradles in one hand, and struck with the one in the other.
The cupped hand acts as a resonator.
Sounds similar to a hard strike on the highest woodblock, but more resonant and with a 'ping'.
Used in orchestras as an alternative to wood block or temple block sounds, or to reinforce secco chords.

Castanets
Made of two small, hardwood spoon-shaped shells that are struck together.
There are three types:
Hand castanets - two pairs, one in each hand. Rarely found in the orchestra.
Paddle castanets - two pairs, one on each side of a paddle. Easy to play, and loud dynamic possible.
Concert castanets - mounted on a board. The lower castanet is stationary, and connected to the upper one by a spring. Clicked together with a finger or drumstick. The most common castanet in the orchestra.
Often used in the orchestra to suggest Spanish subjects.
Used to emphasise rhythms and reinforce sharp attacks.

Sandblock (Sandpaper Block)
Two small blocks of which the bottoms are covered in sandpaper.
Played by rubbing together the coarse surfaces.
Can produce separate, short, coarse strokes, rhythmic passages, or rolls.
Different grades of sandpaper produce different effects.

Maracas
Played as a single, or in pairs.
Consists of a gourd, wooden, or plastic shell filled with pebbles or seeds.
Can be shaken or slowly twirled (stirred). Stirring is very effective as a pianissimo roll when played solo.
Can be tapped with one hand to produce a short note.
In Latin American dances, they often play an ostinato pattern. Can also be used for a 'sizzle' effect at certain points.

Jawbone (Vibraslap)
Related to the maracas as it also rattles.
Looks like the jawbone of a donkey - used to be exactly that, with teeth still intact!
Played by holding in one hand, and strikes it towards the top of the fist of the other hand.
Sounds like loose teeth rattling.
Usually only single strokes are written, due to the long lasting buzz, commensurate with the force of the strike.

Guiro
A large gourd shaped like a bottle, with one serrated side which is scraped by the player with a wooden stick or scraper.
In orchestral music, often scored for instead of the ratchet, rattle or sandblocks which as a rule would be too soft in certain passages.

Ratchet
Simulates a child's ratchet.
Consists of a grooved cylinder and a hard tongue of wood or metal, held in a frame.
When the teeth of the cylinder are rotated against the tongue by a handle, they catch and make a loud clacking sound.
Best for loud passages and rolls.
Single strokes are risky. (would be better on the Guiro).

Whip (Slapstick)
Constructed of two strips of thin hard wood tied together into a paddle held by a string.
Played by clapping together, producing a single very hard stroke.
Usually used to emphasise a sforzando.

Log Drum and Slit Drum
The log drum is a hollowed-out log plugged up at each end, with a slit along the entire surface of one side. Two tongues are cut into the log across the slit, dividing the wood into two equal lengths, producing two different pitches when the wood is struck on the sides next to the tongue openings.
Available in several sizes and thicknesses to produce a spectrum of pitches.
Well-defined pitches can be specified on the instrument.
Slit drums are similar in construction, with a more manufactured look. It is played by hard marimba mallets striking the drums on either side of the slits. The interval between the slits can be a 3rd, or more usually a perfect 4th or 5th. Can easily substitute temple or wood blocks, but with a darker sound.

Membranophones

Snare Drum
Has two heads, the top one called the batter, which is struck, and the bottom one called the snare which has the snares stretched across it.
Snares can be turned on or off with a switch on the side.
Sounds like a tom-tom with the snares off.
Has a crisp, sharp sound with the snares on.
Excellent for playing concise rhythmic patterns.
Has four basic strokes as well as the standard left-right stroke; flam, drag, four-stroke ruff and roll.
Can be muted by placing cloth over the batter - this effect is designated 'cover head'.
Can produce a 'rim shot' by placing stick in middle of head and rim, then striking the stick with the other stick.
Wooden sticks are the normal beaters for this instrument, but wire brushes can also be used for soft effects.

Tenor Drum
Found frequently in both bands and orchestras.
Has a deep resonant sound.
Shares the same basic techniques as the snare drum, but has no snares.
Wooden sticks are the most common beaters, but timpani and marimba mallets are also effective.
Many of these drums have a head on both the top and bottom.

Field Drum
Has snares.
Same circumference as tenor drum, but with a deeper shell giving a lower pitch.
Darker, less crisp sound than snare drum. The same sticks and techniques apply to both instruments.
Rarely used in orchestras.

Bass Drum
Has tremendous power, and can easily drown out the rest of the orchestra when playing rolls or fortissimo, so must be carefully scored for.
Should not be overused.
It's response is slower than the other drums.
Effective in playing slow, repeated notes as well as fast secco isolated strokes.
Has two heads, both of which can be played if standing on its side.
Can also be laid flat.
Effective in soft passages as well as loud ones, adding tremendous weight to the percussion section at the louder volume.
Can begin or end a percussion passage with a single stroke.
Can simulate distant thunder, or evoke a feeling of impending doom with a pianissimo roll.
Has been used to depict war or hostility.
The mallet resembles a timpani mallet, but larger, softer with more felt on the head.
Can also use wooden sticks for strokes and rolls.

Tom-Toms
Occupies an area between definite and indefinite pitch.
Can be tuned to approximate pitches if desired.
Mounted on two stands, each with a pair of drums.
Pitched from high to low in four different voices.
Best notated on the four spaces of the staff.
The two single-headed drums have a crisp and articulate sound. Those with two heads sound more like tenor drums, and have greater sustaining power than the single headed drums, with a deeper and more sombre sound.
Many listeners struggle to differentiate between the two different types of toms.
Yarn or cord mallets, or snare drumsticks are the most common beaters used.
Similar technique to snare drum.
Much music written for tom-toms incorporate gestures written for wood blocks and temple blocks, with which tom-toms can carry a dialogue with the orchestra.

Timbales
Come in pairs, fastened to a metal stand like tom-toms.
Often mistaken for tom-toms, but their metal shell of around snare drum depth gives a more metallic and piercing sound.
Come in two sizes, producing a high and a low sound.
Can be played with timbale sticks - wooden dowels, which are thinner and lighter than snare drumsticks; with marimba mallets, with the hands, with any kind of stick or mallet on the rim, centre of the drum, or a rimshot.

Bongos
Single headed  drums in attached pairs.
Usually tuned a perfect fourth or fifth apart.
Four sizes of pairs are manufactured - low, high, higher, highest.
Usually held between the knees and played with the hands.
Can be mounted like timbales and played by hand or with drumsticks, any kind of mallet, or softly with brushes.
An orchestral player would not be as accomplished as a bongocero, but can be expected to play drum techniques on the bongos that are typical of the tom-toms.

Conga Drum
Used quite frequently in the orchestra today.
About thirty inches high, with a single head about eleven inches in diameter.
Best played with hands, but all types of mallets may be used.
A higher pitch can be found at the rim than in the centre of the drum. This can be notated by using two different lines or spaces.

Tambourine
Evokes thoughts of Spain, but used for all kinds of music today.
A single head skin fastened over a wooden hoop onto which pairs of small cymbals are fixed that jingle when the instrument is struck or shaken.
There are several sizes of tambourine, and this should be specified in the score.
Can be played by striking with the knuckles, playing softly with the fingers, shaking it (notated like a roll) - usually for loud rolls, playing a thumb roll or trill (usually used for soft rolls, must be notated), using all kinds of sticks and mallets if the instrument is placed on a stand or chair, placing it on other percussion instruments such as the timpani, snare drum or bass drum and playing it with a mallet.

Quica; String Drum (Lion's Roar)
The shape of a quica is that of a large, deep bongo.
A single-headed drum with a pole embedded inside in the centre of the drum head.
Played by stroking or rubbing the pole with a damp sponge or cloth, which makes the drum head vibrate.
The instrument's shell consists of a large wooden bucket, the larger the bucket the louder the sound.
The lion's roar is of similar construction, but has a tight rosined string or leather strap instead of a pole, which is often tied on the outside of the drum to a round piece of wood. When the wood is turned, it grips the string then lets it go. This vibrates the head and shell and sounds like a lion's roar.
Used frequently in compositions today.

Aerophones

Sirens
Many 20th century composers have used sirens in their works to paint a picture of modern society.
The type and volume of siren should be designated.

Motor Horns
All kinds have been used, to evoke urban life.
Care must be used, to avoid cliches.

Wind Machine
A large cylindrical wooden frame covered by canvas.
Played by rotating a handle, making thin pieces of wood stroke the canvas, producing a swirling, whistling sound as the revolutions accelerate.
A very realistic wind effect.

Instruments of Definite Pitch

In anticipation of beginning assignment one, and following the theme of part one of the course as a whole, I decided to research in brief all of the main percussion instruments, both definite and indefinite pitch. For this purpose, I used my copy of Samuel Adler's Study of Orchestration - 3rd Edition, which I highly recommend. It gives clear and concise descriptions of each instrument, sometimes a little of its history or heritage, and helpfully some tips on scoring for the instrument. The accompanying audio and video recordings were also very helpful in informing me what the instruments look and sound like. I made notes not for future reference (I have the book for that), but because I tend to remember information better if I note it down, rather than just read it. It took me a whole weekend of study to cover all the instruments, but I feel it was time very well spent. I now have a working knowledge of a wide range of percussion instruments that I can use in my future compositions.

Idiophones

Xylophone
Wooden, arranged like a keyboard.
Played with hard, medium or soft mallets.
Resonators added recently.
Little sustain, must roll long notes.
Rapid and single notes are effective, as are trills, arpeggios and glissandi.
Mostly played with one mallet in each hand.
Range: Different sizes available, most common is Middle C4 - C7.


Marimba
Looks very similar to it's ancestor, the xylophone.
A relative newcomer to the scene.
Has had resonators since its invention.
Exact same playing technique as the xylophone.
Most effectively played with soft mallets (soft rubber or yarn).
More mellow and deeper sound than xylophone.
Rolling larger chords is characteristic of marimba repertoire.
Mostly played with two (or sometimes three) mallets in each hand.
Range: More standardised than the xylophone, but different sizes available. Most common is A3 - C6.
Also available but rare is a bass marimba.


Vibraphone
A vague relative to the glockenspiel due to its metal bars.
The only mallet instrument that uses electrically-driven fans on top of the resonators to produce a vibrato/tremolo effect.
Arranged in a keyboard fashion.
Motor can be turned on or off. Off sounds like a struck tuning fork - very pure with little sustain. Motor on has a lot of sustaining time, and brings the notes alive.
Speed of motor can be changed to speed up or slow down the vibrato.
Uses a pedal similar to the sustain on a piano. Dampers are lifted when pedal is up.
Chords, trills, glissandi and fast passages are as effective on this as the other keyboard-style mallet instruments.
Variety of mallets available, usually cord or rubber, rarely wood or plastic. Yarn mallets for soft passages, and wire brushes for glissandi are effective.
An extra technique, most useful in a solo passage, or when sparsely accompanied is called 'dead stroking' (also know as dead sticking). This involves striking the bar then leaving the mallet on the instrument, giving a muffled staccato colour. Can also be performed on the Xyl. and Mar.
The vibraphone can also be bowed with a cello or bass bow, giving a very eerie sound. Especially effective with pedal down and motor on.


Glockenspiel (Orchestral Bells)
Steel bars, like above instruments, arranged like a keyboard.
Contained within a portable wooden frame.
The oldest of all mallet instruments, numerous examples in 19th-century music.
Sounds two octaves higher than written (some composers such as Schoenberg notated it at pitch).
Usually played with one mallet per hand (sometimes two).
The only instrument for which a brass mallet should be used. Other materials produce less ringing, and a more 'clicking' sound, although a hard yarn mallet enables softer playing.
Has the power to be heard over the whole tutti orchestra, especially in its higher register
Can sustain longer than xyl. and mar. Decay can be further slowed, and some vibrato added by waving hands close to the bars after they are struck.
Range: one size, from G3 - C6.


Chimes (Tubular Bells)
Chromium plated brass tubes of various lengths arranged chromatically, hung on wooden or metal rack.
Simulates closely the sound of church bells.
Has a sustaining pedal, operated with right foot.
Yarn or rawhide mallets covered with cloths useful for soft playing, rawhide mallets without cloths (looks like a hammer) for loud playing.
Faster playing, especially in combination with the sustaining pedal gives the impression of multiple church bells playing at once.
Glissando is practical but should not be overused.
Good policy is not to write for more than two notes at once, although some composers asks for two players, each playing two notes to form a four note chord.
Range: C4 to high A5. Most American sets have an extra A sharp and B Natural.


Crotales (Antique Cymbals)
A set of small metal discs, three to five inches in diameter.
Can be mounted on wooden board shaped like a keyboard, or held by a leather strap.
Metal mallets are used, but if held can be struck together like cymbals. Wooden and plastic mallets can be used, but have less sustaining power. Plastic and medium rubber are used for softer effects.
Like the Glslp., hand can be waved over the discs to further sustain the sound, or shaken if handheld.
Very similar sound to Glspl., especially when played with mallets, but a less piercing, more diffuse sound when struck together.
Like the Vibraphone, can be bowed.
Tuned chromatically, unlike finger-cymbals which are of indefinite pitch.
Sounds two octaves higher than written.
Range: from C5 to C6. A second, rarer set is pitched from C4 to B4.


Steel Drums
A metal head on a metal shell.
Resembles a metallic, ringing marimba.
Played by striking different pitches/sections with a soft mallet.
Sometimes played in a group called a steel band, often one playing the melody while the others provide the harmony.
Uncommon in orchestral works.

Shaken or Stroked

Musical Saw
Has been used successfully since the Second World War by many 'modern' composers.
A finely tuned steel blade attached to a wooden handle.
A violin bow is used on the blade edge, which is curved by the player to obtain different pitches.
Has a pronounced vibrato on every pitch, and a glissando between all the pitches.
Sounds similar to a bowed vibraphone with the motor at the fastest setting, but the pitch isn't as definite.
Range - C5 to the F6 (approx).


Flexatone
Similar sound to the musical saw.
A thin, triangular shaped blade is fixed at its base to a metal frame with a handle. The perfomer adjusts the intonation with their thumb, and shakes the instrument causing a ball attached to either side to hit the blade and produce the sound.
Range - C5 to the F6 (approx).


Crystal Goblets
Goblets of various sizes made out of crystal.
Produce beautifully pure pitches.
Can be struck, but more usually are stroked around the rim with wetted fingers.
Produces long, singing tones.
A close relative to the glass harmonica, an instrument made out of glass bowls and popular with the first Viennese school.
Composers today often just ask for low, medium and high rather than specific pitches, or sometimes for four glasses labelled soprano, alto, tenor and bass.

Membranophones

Timpani (Kettle Drums)
Four sizes of timpani commonly available.
Modern timpani have a foot-pedal to quickly and easily change pitch and to produce glissandi.
Used to strengthen the tonic and dominant during the classical era, and participate in strong tutti passages, especially at cadences and climax points.
Have hard, medium and soft mallets, with other sticks such as wooden drumsticks being used for special effects.
Tone is affected by how close the strike is to the rim. A more soft sound can be produced nearer to the rim.
Sound can be muted by placing cloth on the head.
Special effects can be produced by placing cymbals, maracas etc. on the head so they vibrate sympathetically.
The rim and the bowl of the drum is sometimes hit with wooden sticks as a non-pitched instrument.
It is advisable to mark changes of tuning on the score, especially if it's to be done quickly.
Range - C2 - C4 (across the drum range)


Roto-Toms
Tom-toms that play specific pitches.
Tuned by manual turning of the shell.
Can be used to play a slow melody.
Has seven sizes covering a wide range.
Blend especially well with the timpani.
Can score for timpani and roto-toms in combination, using different shape note-head for each.
All kinds of materials for sticks and mallets including wood, plastic, rubber and cord are effective.

Chordophones

Cimbalom
The most highly developed of the ancient dulcimers.
Trapezoid shaped. Laid flat, and struck on its metal strings in various ways with wooden or leather mallets.
Like a piano, has multiple strings per pitch, and also a damper pedal.
Like the marimba, notes to be sustained are usually rolled, even when not specified.
Especially effective in rapid and florid passages.
Range: four octaves, with all chromatic tones. E2 - E6.

Aerophones

Whistles
Used for various effects.
The type of whistle should be specified (bird whistle, tin whistle, police whistle etc).
If no specific pitch is desired, there should be instructions for what you need it to do.

How A Choir Works

Yesterday I had the opportunity to watch a BBC documentary that first aired a couple of years ago called How A Choir Works. A recent interest in vocal music (especially with a large amount of voices), coupled with my recent concert visit of Karl Jenkin's music that makes extensive use of a choir, made the title of the documentary catch my interest, and I watched it. At an hour long, it is a brief but entertaining and informative look at how the different musical aspects come together to create the unique sound of a choir. Some aspects, such as the individual sections of SATB I was already familiar with, as I have had to write short extracts for this format in music theory exams.

Most choirs sing without amplification, but due to the large dynamic range of the human voice, especially when put together into large groups, the volume can be staggering. The dynamic, and the overall sound of the choir is affected to a large degree by the acoustics of the room (or lack of) that it is performing in. I found it intriguing that in places where a lot of singing takes place, such as concert halls and cathedrals, the choirmaster knows the length of echo, and how this affects the audiences perception of the sound. In one such example, a featured cathedral had an echo of eight seconds, which is enormous in musical terms, and causes difficulty when performing intricate polyphonic works, where the audience can often struggle to follow the melodic lines due to much earlier notes still sustaining. A shorter echo of maybe a second or two can be beneficial however as it adds a pleasant reverb effect to the voices, giving extra depth. The venue can also have implications on each singer's performing experience. One such choir-member featured in the documentary recalls that during a performance in a large concert hall, due to the large space, the other voices weren't able to 'bounce' back towards him, and as such it felt like he could only hear himself singing, a condition he felt to be very unnerving. Contrary to this, a demonstration in a small practice-room revealed that (I assume do to soundproofing) the sound was completely deadened; this resulted in a very flat and unflattering sound to the voices.

Simultaneous voices gives rise to the possibility of combining different vocal 'colours' to the music. As already mentioned, the choir is generally in four sections, sopranos, altos, tenors, and basses (although there are exceptions; Thomas Tallis' 40-Part Motet consists of eight choirs, each of five parts). The basses are considered the most important section, as they provide the underpinning harmony (chords, inversions and progressions are explicitly stated by this part), although the sopranos generally receive the 'fame' as they provide the melody line. The altos and tenors complete the four part harmony, providing the 'tasty filling' to the 'musical sandwich'. The upper two parts are usually sung by women, and the lower two by men, due to the natural pitch ranges of the genders. There are certain male vocalists however who sing in the soprano range, either by use of falsetto, or naturally due to endocrinological reasons. Even though singing at the same pitch as a female soprano, a male soprano (or sopranist) has a different colour or timbre to the voice, the same way a middle C played on both violin and piano would have a different sound, even though they are playing the same pitch.

Some singers (notably in pop groups) use their voices to replicate musical instruments. Some composers have written vocal parts without words, instead using only the timbre of the voice (Steve Reich's Drumming requires whistling effects as well as imitation of percussion instruments). Karl Jenkin's Adiemus uses only syllables and invented words, designed in such a way as to draw the listener's attention to the pitch and timbre of the voices. All these different techniques offer a whole new exciting range of tools for the composer.

Choirs can be used to sing either homophonically, or polyphonically. Polyphony was a very popular style in the Renaissance and Baroque eras, while from the 20th century harmony was expanded from basic triads with a little use of added sevenths, to make extensive use of sevenths, ninths, and more. Outside of the classical world, several pop and rock groups made strong and interesting harmonies in their music, such as The Beach Boys, and Queen.

Most choral music has a specific accompanying text, and it is part of the choirmaster's job to ensure that these words are projected clearly. This is done by making sure all members of the choir are enunciating the words correctly, and that specific syllables are being stressed by everyone at the same time, to ensure clarity for the listener. As well as this, the choirmaster has all the other musical aspects to consider; he or she is constantly manipulating the choir to produce his musical vision, like controlling the knobs on a radio.

Boris Blacher & Variable Metre

Boris Blacher

Boris Blacher was born January 1903 in the Manchurian town of Niuzhuang. He spent his early years in China and the Asian parts of Russia, and in 1919 went to live in Harbin, the capital city of Heilongjiang province in China. In 1922 he finished school, after which he traveled to Berlin to study architecture and mathematics. Two years later, he studied musical composition with Friedrich Koch, a German composer and teacher, supporting himself by arranging popular and film music.

Blacher was affected in the 1930's due to the Nazi Party's campaign against what they labelled 'Entartete Kunst'; degenerate art. This label was applied to the work of any composer where the content of the music or the composer's own views were contrary to those of the Nazi Party. Several composers were exiled, some even sent to concentration camps where they died from disease or the gas chambers. Blacher was forced into internal exile, and lost his post as teacher at Dresden Conservatory. After the war, Blacher resumed his career, and later became professor then director of the Music Academy of Berlin.

Blacher's musical output was prolific, composing works for orchestra, opera, ballet, choral works, and even music for electronic instruments, and for jazz ensembles.

Variable Metre

Blacher's 1950 collection of short pieces for piano titled Ornaments introduced a technique he termed 'variable metres'. It is a system influenced by Arnold Schoenberg's twelve-tone method of composition. In twelve-tone, the twelve notes of the chromatic scale are arranged into a tone row, with each note played but not repeated (except the current one) until the row has been completed. Blacher applied this tone row principle to metre, where the number of beats per bar are changed according to the predetermined order.

In the above opening extract from the first in the collection, you can see under the tempo direction the metre direction for the performer. The first bar has two beat per bar, the next three, up until nine beats per bar where the 'row' goes back to eight beats, then seven etc. This system replaces the traditional time signature, which is notably absent from the score. Accents and marcato, along with the beaming of the quavers assist the performer in the correct shaping and emphasis of the melody.

This score to Blacher's Piano Concerto No.2 shows a different approach to notating the method. Here there is a time signature in place, of 12 quaver beats per bar. Each bar features a large number between the staves which shows the current number of beats (the large 8 in bar two). In this piece, Blacher takes a 12 - 8, 12 - 8 - 7, 12 - 8 - 7 - 6 etc. approach.  

Reflection

I have researched and written an essay on serialism for another OCA music course, and although I found the concept interesting, I didn't particularly like listening to the music. I expected a similar reaction when listening to Boris Blacher's music that utilises variable metre. I am pleasantly surprised to find that I have enjoyed the little of Blacher's music I have experienced so far, particularly the first piece in Ornaments; so much so in fact that I plan to learn to play it myself. I have listened to other music that has changes of metre, such as many Stravinsky works, and unexpectedly a piece for piano by Clint Eastwood that was used as the main theme in the film Changeling, that he directed. Even though that music does change time signature, it is not as frequent as Blacher's variable metre which is literally every bar. This constantly changing metre provides an invigorating experience that I hope to use to some degree in my own compositions, and likely in my upcoming percussion assignment.

Notating Speed

I have used a metronome in my piano practice for many years, and I'm very comfortable with the concept. I use it to keep in strict time in a piece, to help overcome problems with difficult rhythm, and to gradually increase the speed of a piece. With that being said, even though I knew (or thought I knew!) who the inventor was, I'd never looked further into it's history until now.

The metronome was first patented in 1815 by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel, an inventor, engineer and showman. He is also known for composing automated music playing machines, such as the Orchestrion and Panharmonicon, designed to imitate the sounds of real instruments.

The actual inventor of the first metronome was German Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel. He called his invention the cronometer, and donated the first working model to Hollandsch Instituut van Wetenschappen, Letterkunde en Schoone Kunsten in Amsterdam. He made the unfortunate oversight of not protecting his idea, and Johann Maelzel patented it after adding a beat scale. Ludwig Van Beethoven was an acquaintance of Maelzel, and is thought to be the first major composer to indicate specific metronome tempo markings for his music.

The metronome has also been used as a musical instrument in itself in more recent times; Georgi Ligeti's Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes is an example. In that piece, 100 metronomes are each set to different tempos, then to start ticking at the same time. This creates an interesting cacophony until at varying times the metronomes begin to wind down and finally stop. I was fortunate enough to have the opportunity to take part in a performance of this work in March of this year.

Aside from a metronome speed marking in beats per minute, the speed of a piece can also be indicated in words, traditionally Italian. Words such as Presto, Vivace, Allegro, Andante, Largo, and Grave all give an approximate guide to the required speed and character of the music, although these aren't as specific as a metronome marking, and thus may be interpreted slightly differently by different performers.

In my percussion pieces so far I have used a variety of tempos, using either a metronome marking or a performance direction as I saw fit at the time; for example in my piece Funeral March, I chose to use the direction Grave, as this means very slow and solemn; apt for the character of the piece.